Chiroptera as a Potential Reservoir of Dangerous for Humans Viruses in the Territory of the Republic of Guinea. Part 2

Among the viruses transmitted by Chiroptera, filoviruses, lissaviruses, henipaviruses, and coronaviruses pose the major threat to humans. The featured review is devoted to the analysis of the results of studies on the role of African Chiropterans in the circulation sustenance of the viruses. Chronology of investigations on the search of natural reservoir of Filoviruses and the evidence of Chiroptera participation in their circulation are described in the paper. Presented are summarized data on the involvement of chiropterans in the circulation of lissaviruses on the African continent. Given is the information concerning the role of African species of Chiroptera in the circulation of henipaviruses - dangerous for humans viruses of Paramyxoviridae family, associated with chiropterans of South-Eastern Asia. Considered is the possibility of SARS and MERS-like coronaviruses circulation in the populations of certain species of African Chiroptera. Engagement of the Chiroptera from Guinean Republic in maintenance of circulation of the mentioned above viruses in potential natural foci in the territory of the country and possibility of occurrence of dangerous human infection outbreaks is also assessed. The necessity for further investigation of the role of Chiroptera as carriers of the stated viruses to clarify the current epidemiological and epizootiological situation on the viral pathogens in the Republic of Guinea is substantiated.

1. Ebola Situation Report, WHO. Ebola virus disease outbreak. [Internet] (cited 31 Oct 2017). Available from: http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016.

2. Mari Saez A., Weiss S., Nowak K., Lapeyre V, Zimmermann F Dux A., Kuhl H.S., Kaba M., Regnaut S., Merkel K., Sachse A., Thiesen U., Villanyi L., Boesch C., Dabrowski P.W., Radonic A., Nitsche A., Leendertz S.A., Petterson S., Becker S., Krahling V, Couacy-Hymann E., Akoua-Koffi C., Weber N., Schaade L., Fahr J., Borchert M., Gogarten J.F., Calvignac-Spencer S., Leendertz F.H. Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic. EMBO Mol. Med. 2015; 7(1):17-23. DOI: 10.15252/em-mm.201404792.

3. Amman B.R., Swanepoel R., Nichol S.T., Towner J.S. Ecology of Filoviruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2017; 411:23-61. DOI: 10.1007/82201710.

4. Swanepoel R., Smit"S.B., Rollin P.E., Formenty P., Leman P.A., Kemp A., Burt F.J., Grobbelaar A.A., Croft J., Bausch D.G., Zeller H., Leirs H., Braack L.E., Libande M.L., Zaki S., Nichol S.T., Ksiazek T.G., Paweska J.T. International Scientific and Technical Committee for Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever Control in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Studies of reservoir hosts for Marburg virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007; 13(12):1847-51. DOI: 10.3201/eid1312.071115.

5. Amman B.R., Carroll S.A., Reed Z.D., Sealy T.K., Balinandi S., Swanepoel R., Kemp A., Erickson B.R., Comer J.A., Campbell S., Cannon D.L., Khristova M.L., Atimnedi P., Paddock C.D., Crockett R.J., Flietstra T.D., Warfield K.L., Unfer R., Katongole-Mbidde E., Downing R., Tappero J.W., Zaki S.R., Rollin RE., Ksiazek T.G., Nichol S.T., Towner J.S. Seasonal pulses of Marburg virus circulation in juvenile Rousettus aegyptiacus bats coincide with periods of increased risk of human infection. PLoS Pathog. 2012; 8(10):e1002877. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002877.

6. Ogawa H., Miyamoto H., Nakayama E., Yoshida R., Nakamura!., Sawa H., Ishii A., Thomas Y., Nakagawa E., Matsuno K., Kajihara M., Maruyama J., Nao N., Muramatsu M., Kuroda M., Simulundu E., Changula K., Hang’ombe B., Namangala B., Nambota A., Katampi J., Igarashi M., Ito K., Feldmann H., Sugimoto C., Moonga L., Mweene A., Takada A. Seroepidemiological Prevalence of Multiple Species of Filoviruses in Fruit Bats (Eidolon helvum) Migrating in Africa. J. Infect. Dis. 2015; 212(Suppl. 2):S101-8. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv063.

7. Pourrut X., Souris M., Towner J.S., Rollin P.E., Nichol S.T., Gonzalez J.P., Leroy E. Large serological survey showing cocirculation of Ebola and Marburg viruses in Gabonese bat populations, and a high seroprevalence of both viruses in Rousettus aegyptiacus. BMC Infect. Dis. 2009; 28(9);159. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-9-159.

8. Kuzmin I.V,Niezgoda M., Franka R., Agwanda B., Markotter W., Breiman R.F., Shieh W.J., Zaki S.R., Rupprecht C.E. Marburg virus in fruit bat, Kenya. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010; 16(2):352-4. DOI: 10.3201/eid1602.091269.

9. Pigott D.M., Golding N., Mylne A., Huang Z., Weiss D.J., Brady O.J., Kraemer M.U.G., Hay S.I. Mapping the zoonotic niche of Marburg virus disease in Africa. Trans. R. Sic. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2015; 109(6):366-78. DOI:10.1093/trstmh/trv024.

10. Pattyn S.R., editor. Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press; 1978. P. 134-9.

11. Baron R.C., McCormick J.B., Zubeir O.A. Ebola virus disease in Southern Sudan: hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread. Bull. World Health Organ. 1983; 61(6):997-1003.

12. Leroy E.M., Kummungui B., Pourrut X., Rouquet P, Hassanin A., Yaba P., Delicat A., Paweska J.T., Gonzalez J.-P, Swanepoel R. Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature. 2005; 438 (7068^:575-6. DOI: 10.1038/438575a.

13. Leroy E.M., Epelboin A., Mondonge V, Pourrut X., Gonzalez J.P., Muyembe-Tamfum J.J., Formenty P. Human Ebola outbreak resulting from direct exposure to fruit bats in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009; 9(6):723-8. DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0167.

14. Hayman D.T., Yu M., Crameri G., Wang L.F., Suu-Ire R., Wood J.L., Cunningham A.A. Ebola virus antibodies in fruit bats, Ghana, West Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012; 18(7):1207-9. DOI: 10.3201/eid1807.111654.

15. Goldstein T., Anthony S.J., Gbakima A., Bird B.H., Bangura J., Tremeau-Bravard A., Belaganahalli M.N., Wells H.L., Dhanota J.K., Liang E., Grodus M., Jangra R.K., DeJesus V.A., Lasso G., Smith B.R., Jambai A., Kamara B.O., Kamara S., Bangura W., Monagin C., Shapira S., Johnson C.K., Saylors K., Rubin EM., Chandran K., LipkinW.I., Mazet J.A.K. The discovery of Bombali virus adds further support for bats as hosts of ebolaviruses. Nat. Microbiol. 2018; 3(1031084-9. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-018-0227-2.

16. Taxonomy Browser. [Internet] (cited 31 Oct 2017). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=11286.

17. Hayman D.T., Fooks A.R., Marston D.A., Garcia-R. J.C. The Global Phylogeography of Lyssaviruses - Challenging the “Out ofAfrica” Hypothesis. PLoSNegl. Trop. Dis. 2016; 10(12):e0005266. DOI: 10.137I/joumal.pntd.0005266.

18. Badrane H., Tordo N. Host switching in Lyssavirus his¬tory from the Chiroptera to the Carnivora orders. J. Virol. 2001; 75(17):8096-104. DOl: 10.1128/JVI.75.17.8096-8104.2001.

19. Human rabies: 2016 updates and call for data. Wkly Epidemiol. Rec. 2017; 92(7):77-86

20. Aghomo H.O., Ako-Nai A.K., Oduye O.O., Tomori O., Rupprecht C.E. Detection of rabies virus antibodies in fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) from Nigeria. J. Wildl. Dis. 1990; 26(2):258—61. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-26.2.258.

21. Kuzmin I.V., Niezgoda M., Franka R., Agwanda B., Markotter W., Beagley J.C., Urazova O.Y, Breiman R.F., Rupprecht C.E. Lagos Bat Virus in Kenya. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2008; 46(4)4451- 61. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.00016-08.

22. Kgaladi J., Wright N., Coertse J., Markotter W., Marston D., Fooks A.R., Freuling C.M., Muller T.F., Sabeta C.T., Nel L.H. Diversity and Epidemiology of Mokola Virus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2013; 7(10):e2511. DOI: f0.1371/journal.pntd.0002511.

23. BanyardA.C., Evans J.S., Luo T.R., Fooks A.R. Lyssaviruses and Bats: Emergence and Zoonotic Threat. Viruses. 2014; 6:2974-90. DOI: 10.3390/v6082974.

24. Wright E., Hayman D.T.S., Vaughan A., Temperton N.J., Wood J.L.N., Cunningham A.A., Suu-Ire R., Weiss R.A., Fooks A.R. Virus neutralising activity of African fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) sera against emerging lyssaviruses. Virology. 2010; 408(2):183-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.09.014

25. Moratelli R., Calisher C.H. Bats and zoonotic viruses: can we confidently link bats with emerging deadly viruses? Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2015; 110(1):1-22. DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760150048.

26. Markotter W., Monadjem A., Nel L.H. Antibodies against Duvenhage virus in insectivorous bats in Swaziland. J. Wildl. Dis. 2013; 49(4):1000-3. DOI: 10.7589/2012-10-257.

27. Markotter W., Randles J., Rupprecht C.E., Sabeta C.T., Taylor PJ., Wandeler A.I., Nel L.H. Lagos bat virus, South Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006; 12(3):504-6. DOI: 10.3201/eid1205.051306.

28. Ogunkoya A.B., Beran G.W., Umoh J.U., Gomwalk N.E., Abdulkadiri.A. Serological evidence of infection of dogs and man in Nigeria by lyssaviruses (family Rhabdoviridae). Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1990; 84(6):842-5.

29. Kuzmin I.V, Mayer A.E., Niezgoda M., Markotter W., Agwanda B., Breiman R.F., Rupprecht C.E. Shimoni bat virus, a new representative of the Lyssavirus genus. Virus Res. 2010; 149(2):197- 210. DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.20f0.01.018.

30. Marston D.A., Horton D.L., Ngeleja C., Hampson K., McElhinney L.M., Ashley C. Banyard, Daniel Haydon, Sarah Cleaveland, Charles E. Rupprecht, Bigambo M., Fooks A.R., Lembo T. Ikoma Lyssavirus, Highly Divergent Novel Lyssavirus in an African Civet. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012; 18(4):664-7. DOI: 10.3201/eid1804.111553.

31. Weatherman S., Feldmann H., de Wit E. Transmission of henipaviruses. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2017; 28:7-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.09.004.

32. Angeletti S, Lo Presti A, Cella E, Ciccozzi M. Molecular epidemiology and phylogeny of Nipah virus infection: A mini review. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2016; 9(7):630-4. DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.05.012.

33. Middleton D. Hendra virus. Vet. Clin. North. Am. Equine. Pract. 2014; 30(3):579-89. DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.004.

34. Gurley E.S., Hegde S.T., Hossain K., Sazzad H.M.S., Hossain M.J., Rahman M., Sharker M.A.Y., Salje H., Islam M.S., Epstein J.H., Khan S.U., Kilpatrick A.M., Daszak P., Luby S.P. Convergence of Humans, Bats, Trees, and Culture in Nipah Virus Transmission, Bangladesh. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2017; 23(9):1446-53. DOI: 10.3201/eid2309.161922.

35. Iehle C., Razafitrimo G., Razainirina J., Andriaholinirina N., Goodman S.M., Faure C., Georges-Courbot M.C., Rousset D., Reynes J.M. Henipavirus and Tioman virus antibodies in pteropodid bats, Madagascar. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007; 13(1):159-61. DOI: 10.3201/eid1301.060791.

36. Hayman D.T., Suu-Ire R., Breed A.C., McEachern J.A., Wang L., Wood J.L., Cunningham A.A. Evidence of henipavirus infection in West African fruit bats. PLoS One. 2008; 3(7):е2739. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002739.

37. Pernet O., Schneider B.S., Beaty S.M., LeBreton M., Yun T.E., Park A., Zachariah T.T., Bowden T.A., Hitchens P., Ramirez C.M., Daszak P, Mazet J., Freiberg A.N., Wolfe N.D., Lee B. Evidence for henipavirus spillover into human populations in Africa. Nat. Commun. 2014; 5:5342. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6342.

38. Drexler J.F., Corman V.M., Muller M.A., Maganga G.D., Vallo P, Binger T., Gloza-Rausch F., Cottontail V.M., Rasche A., Yordanov S., Seebens A., Knornschild M., Oppong S., Adu Sarkodie Y, Pongombo C., Lukashev A.N., Schmidt-Chanasit J., Stocker A., Carneiro A.J., Erbar S., Maisner A., Fronhoffs F., Buettner R., Kalko E.K., Kruppa T., Franke C.R., Kallies R., Yandoko E.R., Herrler G., Reusken C., Hassanin A., Kruger D.H., Matthee S., Ulrich R.G., Leroy E.M., Drosten C. Bats host major mammalian paramyxoviruses. Nat. Commun. 2012; 24(3):796. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1796.

39. Lee B., Pernet O., Ahmed A.A., Zeltina A., Beaty S.M., Bowden T.A. Molecular recognition of human ephrinB2 cell surface receptor by an emergent African henipavirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2015; 112(17):E2156-65. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1501690112.

40. Woo PC., Lau S.K., Lam C.S., Lau C.C., Tsang A.K., Lau J.H., Bai R., Teng J.L., Tsang C.C., Wang M., Zheng B.J., Chan K.H., Yuen K.Y Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus. J. Virol. 2012; 86(7):3995-4008. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.06540-11.

41. Memish Z.A., Cotten M., Meyer B., Watson S.J., Alsahafi A.J., Al Rabeeah A.A., Corman V.M., Sieberg A., Makhdoom H.Q., Assiri A., Al Masri M., Aldabbagh S., Bosch B.J., Beer M., Muller M.A., Kellam P., Drosten C. Human infection with MERS coronavirus after exposure to infected camels, Saudi Arabia, 2013. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014; 20(6):1012-5. DOI: 10.3201/eid2006.140402.

42. Weiss S.R., Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2005; 69(4):635-64. DOI: 10.1128/MMBR.69.4.635-664.2005.

43. Hu B., Ge X., Wang L.-F., Shi Z. Bat origin of human coronaviruses. Virol. J. 2015; 12:221. DOI: 10.1186М2985-015-0422-1.

44. Li W., Shi Z., Yu M., Ren W., Smith C., Epstein J.H., Wang H., Crameri G., Hu Z., Zhang H., Zhang J., McEachern J., Field H., Daszak P, Eaton B.T., Zhang S., Wang L.F. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science. 2005; 310(5748):676-9. DOI: 10.1126/science.1118391.

45. Muller M.A., Paweska J.T., Leman P.A., Drosten C., Grywna K., Kemp A., Braack L., Sonnenberg K., Niedrig M., Swanepoel R. Coronavirus antibodies in African bat species. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007; 13(9):1367-70. DOI: 10.3201/eid1309.070342.

46. Pfefferle S., Oppong S., Drexler J.F., Gloza-Rausch F., Ipsen A., Seebens A., Muller M.A., Annan A., Vallo P, Adu-Sarkodie Y, Kruppa T.F., Drosten C. Distant Relatives of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus and Close Relatives of Human Coronavirus 229E in Bats, Ghana. Emerg. Infect. Diseases. 2009; 15(9):1377-84. DOI: 10.3201/eid1509.090224.

47. Quan P.-L., Firth C., Street C., Henriquez J.A., Petrosov A., Tashmukhamedova A., Hutchison S.K., Egholm M., Osinubi M.O.V., Niezgoda M., Ogunkoya A.B., Briese T., Rupprecht C.E., Lipkin W.I. Identification of a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-Like Virus in a Leaf-Nosed Bat in Nigeria. MBio. 2010; 1(4):e00208-10. DOI: 10.1128/mBio.00208-10.

48. Tong S., Conrardy C., Ruone S., Kuzmin I.V, Guo X., Tao Y, Niezgoda M., Haynes L., Agwanda B., Breiman R.F., Anderson L.J., Rupprecht C.E. Detection of novel SARS-like and other coronaviruses in bats from Kenya. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2009; 15(3):482-5. DOI: 10.3201/eid1503.081013.

49. Muller M.A., Corman V.M., Jores J., Meyer B., Younan M., Liljander A., Bosch B.J., Lattwein E., Hilali M., Musa B.E., Bornstein S., Drosten C. MERS coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in camels, Eastern Africa, 1983-1997. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014; 20(12):2093-5. DOI: 10.3201/eid2012.141026.

50. Corman V.M., Ithete N.L., Richards L.R., Schoeman M.C., Preiser W., Drosten C., Drexler J.F. Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat. J. Virol. 2014; 88(19):11297- 303. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01498-14.